E-MELD - GOLD

Source:

Mithun (1999:204-6),Callaghan (1963)

Concept:

AbsoluteFutureTense

Definition:

AbsoluteFutureTense locates the event in question subsequent to the present moment; it is a prediction of some state of affairs (Comrie 1985: 43-44).

Comment:

In Chepang, a simple Future may be expressed by suffixing /-caʔ/ to the main verb as in the first example. This affix may also be used to express epistemic possibility, hence the double gloss in that example. The second and third examples illustrate the use of the suffix /-kheʔ/, in combination with tense/aspect suffixes. Caughley characterizes the difference between these examples as follows: for the second 'the action as a completed unit is about to occur', and for the third the action 'is about to begin'. The fourth example illustrates another immediate future. Caughley refers to /-dhaŋ/ as the 'Near Future Marker'. It combines with the suffix /-caʔ/.

Example:

ŋa -
1.SG-

ʔi
AGR

goʔ -
call-

ceʔ -
FUT-

na -
2-

ŋ
1.EXCL

I will/may call you

jaʔ -
tiger-

ʔi
AGR

mak -
devour-

kheʔ -
IMMED-

ʔa -
PST-

thəy
GOAL

A tiger is about to devour him

kim -
house-

taŋ
ALLATIVE

dah -
arrive-

kheʔ -
IMMED-

naʔ
NONPST

He is about to arrive at the house

ŋa -
1.SG-

ʔi -
AGR-

dhaŋ
IMMEDFUT

yo -
look-

dhaŋ -
IMMEDFUT-

ca -
FUT-

ŋʔ
1.EXCL

'I am about to look/I will look now

Language:

Chepang

Source:

Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca (1994:245-246),Caughley (1982)

Concept:

AbsolutePastTense

Definition:

AbsolutePastTense locates the situation in question prior to the present moment (Comrie 1985: 41).

Comment:

Agaw reportedly has a past/non-past binary tense system. Hetzron reports that for the main forms of Agaw verbs, there are combinations of two tenses and two aspects. In Hetzron's description, the two tenses are called Imperfect (used for present and future expressions) and Perfect (for past expressions). The two aspects are Definite and Indefinite. The first example is what he calls the Imperfect Definite (with a Nonpast tense). The second is the Imperfect Indefinite (also Nonpast). The third example is the Perfect Definite (a Past). The fourth is the Perfect Indefinite (also Past). The Imperfect Indefinite and the Perfect Definite are the most frequent combinations.

Example:

desáwi

He will study (certain)

desé

He is studying/He will study (uncertain)

desγʷà

He studied (certain)

desa

He studied (and still is)/He studied (uncertain)

Language:

Agaw, Western

Source:

Hetzron (1969:12-13)

Concept:

AbsolutePresentTense

Definition:

AbsolutePresentTense locates the situation in question at the present moment, though the situation rarely coincides exactly with the present moment (Comrie 1985: 37).

Comment:

Yup'ik appears to have a grammaticalized 4-way Tense distinction. Mithun includes discussion of the variable amount of time subsumed by the Yup'ik Present Tense form in the first example. Depending on the discourse situation, the present tense can cover anywhere from a time shortly before the utterance, to a day or so afterwards. The span of time covered has less to do with objective time than it does with the immediate consciousness of a speaker/hearer with regards to the experience being described. The second and third examples illustrate Immediate Future and Simple Future in the language

Example:

nalkutaqa

I'm finding it

nalkutell -

rua -

I found it

nalkut -

qatar -

aqa

I'm about to find it

nalku -

ciiq -

aqa

I'll find it

Language:

Yupik, Central

Source:

Mithun (1999:158-9)

Concept:	AbsoluteRelativeTense
Definition:	AbsoluteRelativeTense locates the event in question in relation to a temporal reference point that, in turn, is referred to in relation to the moment of utterance; the reference point and the moment of utterance are not identical (Comrie 1985: 64-65).

Concept:	AbsoluteTense
Definition:	AbsoluteTenseValue is the set of all values associated with the grammatical encoding of an event's location in time where the moment of utterance is the deictic center (Comrie 1985: 36).

Concept:

AbsolutiveCase

Definition:

AbsolutiveCase in ergative-absolutive languages mark referents that would generally be the subjects of intransitive verbs or the objects of transitive verbs in the translational equivalents of nominative-accusative languages (Anderson 1985: 181; Crystal 1985: 1; Andrews and Avery 1985: 138).

Comment:

Blake uses the gloss NOM rather than ABS, a tradition among Australianists. Note in the examples above that the subject of the intransitive verb in the first example patterns after the object of the transitive verb in the second exa mple.

Example:

w -
M-

as
child- ABS

w -
M-

eikér -
run-

ula
PRES

The boy runs

Language:

Avar

Source:

Blake (2001:121),Ebeling (1966:77)

Concept:	Abstract
Definition:	Properties or qualities as distinguished from any particular embodiment of the properties/qualities in a physical medium. Instances of Abstract can be said to exist in the same sense as mathematical objects such as sets and relations, but they cannot exist at a particular place and time without some physical encoding or embodiment.

Concept:

AccusativeCase

Definition:

AccusativeCase in nominative-accusative languages marks certain syntactic functions, usually direct objects (Hartmann and Stork 1972: 3,156; Crystal 1980: 11,246; Andrews and Avery 1985: 75; Anderson; 1985: 181; Mish et al. 1990: 50).

Comment:

Here the nominative is zero-marked. Also, in this language nonspecific objects do not take the accusative case.

Example:

Hasan
Hasan- NOM

öküz -
ox-

ü
ACC

aldi
buy- PST.3.SG

Hasan bought the ox

Müdür
director- NOM

Hasan -
Hasan-

a
DAT

mektu -
letter-

u
ACC

göster -
show-

di
PST

The director showed the letter to Hasan

Language:

Turkish

Source:

Blake (2001:87, 119),Comrie (1989:132-6, 175-6),Comrie (1976)

Concept:

AdessiveCase

Definition:

AdessiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location near/at which another referent exists. It has the meaning of 'at' or 'near' (Crystal 1997: 8).

Example:

karhu -
bear-

na
ESS

at the bear

karhu -
bear-

lla
ADESS

near the bear

karhu -
bear-

sta
ELAT

out of the bear

karhu -
bear-

lta
ABL

from the bear

karhu -
bear-

lle
ALL

towards the bear

Language:

Finnish

Source:

Kiparsky (2001:316)

Concept:	Adjectivalization
Definition:	An adjectivalization is a partOfSpeech whose members differ grammatically from adjectives but which functions as them (Crystal 1997:260; Mish et al. 1990:801).

Concept:	Adjective
Definition:	An adjective is a part of speech whose members modify nouns. An adjective specifies the attributes of a noun referent. Note: this is one case among many. Adjectives are a class of modifiers (Crystal 1997:8; Mish et al. 1990:56; Payne 1997:63).

Concept:	Adposition
Definition:	An adposition is a part of speech whose members are of a closed set and occur before or after a complement composed of a noun phrase, noun, pronoun, or clause that functions as a noun phrase and forms a single structure with the complement to express its grammatical and semantic relation to another unit within a clause (Comrie 1989:91; Crystal 1997: 305; Mish et al. 1990:929; Payne 1997:86).

Concept:

Adverb

Definition:

An adverb, narrowly defined, is a part of speech whose members modify verbs for such categories as time, manner, place, or direction. An adverb, broadly defined, is is a part of speech whose members modify any constituent class of words other than nouns, such as verbs, adjectives, adverbs, phrases, clauses, or sentences. Under this definition, the possible type of modification depends on the class of the constituent being modified (Crystal 1997:11; Mish et al. 1990:59; Payne 1997:69).

Concept:	AdversativeCase
Definition:	AdversativeCase expresses an antithetical circumstance. Adversative meaning can be expressed in several grammatical ways, such as through a conjunction (but), adverbial (however, nevertheless, yet, in spite of that, on the other hand), or preposition (despite, except, apart from, notwithstanding) (Crystal 1997: 11).

Concept:

AllativeCase

Definition:

AllativeCase expresses motion to or toward the referent of the noun it marks (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 6,9,216; Lyons 1968: 299; Crystal 1985: 1213; Gove, et al. 1966: 55,2359).

Comment:

Lake Miwok has ten case enclitics, illustrated in the examples. In the vocative example, the gram marked as VOC is specific to 'mother'. Other kinship terms have their own special vocative forms.

Example:

kúku -
flea-

n
NOM

A flea is sitting on your forehead

káac -
fish-

u
ACC

He saw the fish

ʔóle
coyote

n
GEN

ṣúluk
skin

coyote skin

ṭumáj -
stick-

tu
INST

I hit him with a stick

réej
king

húukewa -
front-

m
ESS

He's standing in front of the king

réej -
king-

to
ALL

ʔonínnuka

He brought them to the king

má -
that-

m
ABL

The cat came out of there

kaʔáppi -
father-

ni
COMIT

I am walking with my father

ʔunú -
mother-

u
VOC

ʔujée
come.here

Mother, come here!

Language:

Source:

Mithun (1999:204-6),Callaghan (1963)

Concept:

Animate

Definition:

One of the two grammatical genders, or classes of nouns, the other being inanimate. Membership in the animate grammatical class is largely based on meanings, in that living things, including humans, animals, spirits, trees, and most plants are included in the animate class of nouns (Valentine 2001: 114).

Example:

mEtEg#O
tree- ANIM

tree

mEtEg#O -
tree-

g
ANIM- PL

trees

mEtEg#O -
tree-

s
DIM- INANIM

stick

mEtEg#O -
tree-

s -
DIM-

g
INANIM- PL

sticks

Language:

Potawatomi

Source:

Buszard-Welcher (unpublished field notes)

Concept:	Article
Definition:	An article is a member of a small class of determiners that identify a noun's definite or indefinite reference, and new or given status (Crystal 1997:26; Mish et al. 1990:105).

Concept:	AspectValue
Definition:	AspectValue is the class of values that may be associated with the feature instance 'aspect'. AspectValue is the class of all apsect types found in language. Aspect is the grammatical encoding of various characteristics of the event referred to in an utterance. Aspect does not form a semantically contiguous class (Comrie 1976; Bybee 1985; Sasse 2002).

Concept:

Assumptive

Definition:

Assumptive encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through (possibly) unsound inference procedure. That is, it is at least reasonalbe (Palmer 2001: 6-8).

Comment:

Compare the first example, illustrating a Deductive Mood form, to the second example illustrating an Assumptive Mood form.

Example:

díiga
soccer

apé -
play-

yi
3.SG.PST- DEDUCT

He played soccer (I have seen evidence that he played, but I did not see him play)

díiga
soccer

apé -
play-

hīyi
3.SG.PST- ASSUMP

He played soccer (I assume, but I have seen no evidence of this)

Language:

Tuyuca

Source:

Palmer (2001:36),Barnes (1984),Malone (1988)

Concept:	Attribute
Definition:	Qualities which we cannot or choose not to reify into subclasses of Object.

Concept:

AuditoryEvidential

Definition:

AuditoryEvidential encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through direct auditory experience; they heard it. This does not include spoken reported accounts, but only direct sensory evdience, such as the situation of 'hearing a tree fall' (Palmer 2001: 38).

Comment:

Double notation with the visual evidential gloss in the first example is meant to indicate a circumfix. The second illustrates an Auditory Evidential.

Example:

a -
VIS-

pe -
come-

re
VIS

[I see] it coming.

pe -
come-

ra -
CUST-

rakae
AUD

[I hear] it coming.

Language:

Fasu

Source:

Palmer (2001:38),Foley (1986)

Concept:

AversiveCase

Definition:

Marks the noun whose referent is the object of avoidance; also called the evitative (Blake 1998: 154).

Example:

yanyi -
ghost-

ŋkuŋu
AVERS

rumpi
fear

S/he is afraid of ghosts

Language:

Kalkutung

Source:

Blake (2001:154-155)

Concept:

BenefactiveCase

Definition:

BenefactiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks receives the benefit of the situation expressed by the clause (Crystal 1980: 43; Gove, et al. 1966: 203).

Example:

ama -
mother-

rentzat
SG.BEN

eros -
buy-

i
PERF

d -
3.ABS-

it -
PRES-

u -
PL-

t
AUX2.1.SG.ERG

lore -
flower-

ak
PL.ABS

I have bought some flowers for mother

Language:

Basque

Source:

Saltarelli (1988:156)

Concept:

BoundRoot

Definition:

BoundRoot is the class of bound units whose members are common to a set of derived or inflected units, if any, when all bound units are removed. They are not further analyzable into meaningful elements, being morphologically simple. Also, they designate the principle portion of meaning of the unit to which it belongs (Crystal 1985:268; Hartmann and Stork 1972:199; Pei and Gaynor 1954:187-188; Mish et al. 1990:1023; Matthews 1991:64).

Concept:	BoundStem
Definition:	BoundStem is the class of units whose members are decomposable into a root or roots and a derivational unit, and are only expressed by bound forms in the language (Crystal 1985:287; Mish et al. 1990:1154).

Concept:

CaseValue

Definition:

CaseValue is the class of values that may be associated with the feature instance 'case'. CaseValue is the class of all case types found in language. Case is a system of marking dependent nouns for the type of relationship (syntactic or semantic) they bear to some other element in the sentence, such as a verb, noun, pronoun, or adposition(Pei and Gaynor 1954: 35; Crystal 1980: 5354; Anderson 1985: 179180; Andrews 1985: 7172; Mish et al. 1990: 211; Kuno 1973: 45; Blake 2001).

Concept:

Categorical

Definition:

Categorical encodes that fact that the speaker knows the expressed proposition to be true (Palmer 2001: 37, 68-69).

Comment:

The first example, with an assertion clitic, may be compared to the second with a categorical assertion clitic.

Example:

waŋa:y -
NEG-

ba: -
ASSERT-

na
3.ABS

yana -
walk-

nhi
PST

He didn't walk (again)

guni:m -
mother-

baa -
ABS-

nu:
CATEGORIALASSERT- 2.OBL

balu -
die-

y -
COMM-

aga
IRREAL

Your mother is bound to die

Language:

Source:

Palmer (2001:83),Donaldson (1980)

Concept:

CausalCase

Definition:

Used to mark the noun whose referent is the cause of some event, found in Archi (Kibrik 1998: 468).

Example:

piciri -
pituri-

t̪uŋu
CAUS

ŋai
I

mil̪t̪i
eyes

wakini
spin

I'm high on pituri

Language:

Kalkutung

Source:

Blake (1979:47)

Concept:	Character
Definition:	Character is the minimal orthographic unit.

Concept:

Class

Definition:

Classes differ from Sets in two important respects. First, Classes are not assumed to be extensional. That is, distinct Classes might well have exactly the same instances. Second, Classes typically have an associated `condition' that determines the instances of the Class. So, for example, the condition `human' determines the Class of Humans. Note that some Classes might satisfy their own condition (e.g., the Class of Abstract things is Abstract) and hence be instances of themselves.

Concept:	Clause
Definition:	A clause is a minimal unit including a predicate, all arguments of the predicate, and all modifiers of the predicate and the arguments.

Concept:	Clitic
Definition:	Clitic is the class of units which members exhibit syntactic characteristics of a lexical unit, but show evidence of being morphologically bound to another lexical unit, the host, by being unstressed or subject to word-level phonological rules (Crystal 1980:64; Hartmann and Stork 1972:38; Anderson 1985:158; Klavans 1982: xi-xiv, 74-76,83,93-95,100-101; Zwicky 1977:5).

Concept:

CloseFutureTense

Definition:

CloseFutureTense, also called 'immediate future', locates the situation in question shortly after the moment of utterance (Dahl 1985:121; Comrie 1985:94; Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 244-245).

Comment:

Example:

ŋa -
1.SG-

ʔi
AGR

goʔ -
call-

ceʔ -
FUT-

na -
2-

ŋ
1.EXCL

I will/may call you

jaʔ -
tiger-

ʔi
AGR

mak -
devour-

kheʔ -
IMMED-

ʔa -
PST-

thəy
GOAL

A tiger is about to devour him

kim -
house-

taŋ
ALLATIVE

dah -
arrive-

kheʔ -
IMMED-

naʔ
NONPST

He is about to arrive at the house

ŋa -
1.SG-

ʔi -
AGR-

dhaŋ
IMMEDFUT

yo -
look-

dhaŋ -
IMMEDFUT-

ca -
FUT-

ŋʔ
1.EXCL

'I am about to look/I will look now

Language:

Chepang

Source:

Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca (1994:245-246),Caughley (1982)

Concept:	ClosedFeature
Definition:	ClosedFeature is the set of features with a simple value, e.g., the feature 'tense' which may have the feature 'past' (Maxwell, Simons and Hayashi 2001).

Concept:

ClosedMorphoSyntacticFeature

Definition:

ClosedMorphoSyntacticFeature identifies the particular grammatical category to which a simple FeatureValue is assigned. It is the first member of a FeatureSpecification. Any grammatical category, such as 'tense' or 'aspect', can be represented as a ClosedMorphoSyntacticFeature in a given language. A set of Features forms an integral part of a language's FeatureSystem. (Maxwell, Simons and Hayashi 2001).

Concept:	ClosedSpecification
Definition:	ClosedSpecification is a kind of FeatureSpecification whose first element must be an instance of Feature and whose second element must be an instance of FeatureValue (Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

Concept:

ComitativeCase

Definition:

ComitativeCase expresses accompaniment. It carries the meaning 'with' or 'accompanied by' (Anderson, Stephen 1985: 186; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 42;Dixon, R. 1972: 12; Gove, et al. 1966: 455).

Comment:

Lake Miwok has ten case enclitics, illustrated in the examples. In the vocative example, the gram marked as VOC is specific to 'mother'. Other kinship terms have their own special vocative forms.

Example:

kúku -
flea-

n
NOM

A flea is sitting on your forehead

káac -
fish-

u
ACC

He saw the fish

ʔóle
coyote

n
GEN

ṣúluk
skin

coyote skin

ṭumáj -
stick-

tu
INST

I hit him with a stick

réej
king

húukewa -
front-

m
ESS

He's standing in front of the king

réej -
king-

to
ALL

ʔonínnuka

He brought them to the king

má -
that-

m
ABL

The cat came out of there

kaʔáppi -
father-

ni
COMIT

I am walking with my father

ʔunú -
mother-

u
VOC

ʔujée
come.here

Mother, come here!

Language:

Source:

Mithun (1999:204-6),Callaghan (1963)

Concept:

Commisive

Definition:

Commisive encodes that the speaker promises or threatens to perform some action (Palmer 2001: 10, 72).

Comment:

Palmer notes that most languages do not have a specific grammatical form for Commisives. In Ngiyambaa it appears that the marker glossed COMM combined with the Irrealis marker is used epistemically for 'might' or 'likely' and deontically for authoritative 'shall'. Palmer also reports that Ngiyambaa has a different inflectional form for the obligative or 'purposive' mood.

Example:

waŋa:y -
NEG-

ndu -
2.NOM-

gal
PL

dhagurma -
cemetery-

gu
DAT

yana -
go-

y -
COMM-

aga
IRREAL

You shall none of you go to the cemetery

Language:

Source:

Palmer (2001:36),Donaldson (1980)

Concept:

ComparativeCase

Definition:

ComparitiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks has some property to a lesser extent than that of the referent of some other noun; found in Archi (Kibrik 1998: 469) and in some Dravidian languages (Blake 1998: 155).

Example:

qɪinn -
bridge-

i -
OBL.SG-

Xur
COMPAR

than a/the bridge

Language:

Source:

Kibrik (1991:256)

Concept:

CompletiveAspect

Definition:

CompletiveAspect, also called the egressive, encodes the end portion of some event. In order to be a completive, the case in question should be clearly differentiated in the grammar from an ordinary perfective which also implies that the event is completed (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 54; Payne 1997: 240; Dahl 1999: 33).

Comment:

The first example, with completive aspect, may be compared with the second example, which lacks completive aspect.

Example:

i -
1.SG-

vu -
paddle-

kia
COMPL

Domove
Domove

davi
and.then

e -
1.SG-

pare
cast.net

pamo
net

I paddled to Domove, and then cast my net.

e -
1.SG-

vu
paddle

e -
1.SG-

keoi -
cast.net-

na
APPL

I went fishing

Language:

Warembori

Source:

Donohue (1999a:65)

Concept:	ComplexFeature
Definition:	ComplexFeature is the set of features which have complex values, that is, which have a FeatureSpecification as its value (Maxwell, Simons and Hayashi 2001).

Concept:	ComplexLexicalUnit
Definition:	ComplexLexicalUnit

Concept:	ComplexMorphoSyntacticFeature
Definition:	ComplexMorphoSyntacticFeature identifies the particular grammatical category to which a FeatureSpecification is assigned. This class is used to assign multiple values to a single feature, e.g., 'agreement' (Maxwell, Simons and Hayashi 2001).

Concept:	ComplexOrthWord
Definition:	A ComplexOrthWord is made up of two or more WrittenLinguisticExpressions.

Concept:	ComplexSpecification
Definition:	ComplexSpecification is a kind of FeatureSpecification whose first element must be an instance of Feature and whose second element must be an instance of FeatureStructure. This class gives a feature system its recursive properites (Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

Concept:	Compound
Definition:	Compound

Concept:	Connective
Definition:	Also known as a conjunction, a Connective is a class of parts of speech whose members syntactically link words or larger constituents, and expresses a semantic relationship between them. A conjunction is positionally fixed relative to one or more of the elements related by it, thus distinguishing it from constituents such as English conjunctive adverbs (Crystal 1997:81; Mish et al. 1990:277-278).

Concept:

ContablativeCase

Definition:

ContablativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location from near which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'from near'.

Example:

aɪnš -
apple-

lit
SG.SUPERESS

on the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBESS

ʟ́

under the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INESS

inside the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

um -
PL.INTERESS

če -

qɪ

between the apples

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERLAT

t̄ -

iš

onto the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBLAT

L'ak

towards the underneath of the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

l -
SG.ILL

a -

into the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

l -
SG.INTERLAT

qɪak

towards the middle of the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.CONTLAT

rak

in the vicinity of the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERABL

t̄iš

from over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBABL

L'aš

from under the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

l -
SG.INABL

a -

ŝ

from within the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INTERABL

qɪaŝ

from between the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.CONTABL

raš

from near the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERALL

t̄iši

towards over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBALL

L'aši

towards under the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INALL

aši

towards inside the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
PL.INTERALL

um -

če -

qɪaši

towards between the apples

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.CONTALL

rši

towards near the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERTRANS

t̄iXut

along the region over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBTRANS

L'aXut

along the region over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INTRANS

aXut

along the region over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INTERTRANS

qIaXut

along the region over the apple

Language:

Source:

Kibrik (1998:470-1)

Concept:

ContallativeCase

Definition:

ContallativeCase expresses that something is moving toward the vicinity of the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'towards the vicinity of'.

Example:

aɪnš -
apple-

lit
SG.SUPERESS

on the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBESS

ʟ́

under the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INESS

inside the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

um -
PL.INTERESS

če -

qɪ

between the apples

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERLAT

t̄ -

iš

onto the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBLAT

L'ak

towards the underneath of the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

l -
SG.ILL

a -

into the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

l -
SG.INTERLAT

qɪak

towards the middle of the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.CONTLAT

rak

in the vicinity of the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERABL

t̄iš

from over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBABL

L'aš

from under the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

l -
SG.INABL

a -

ŝ

from within the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INTERABL

qɪaŝ

from between the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.CONTABL

raš

from near the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERALL

t̄iši

towards over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBALL

L'aši

towards under the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INALL

aši

towards inside the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
PL.INTERALL

um -

če -

qɪaši

towards between the apples

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.CONTALL

rši

towards near the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERTRANS

t̄iXut

along the region over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBTRANS

L'aXut

along the region over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INTRANS

aXut

along the region over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INTERTRANS

qIaXut

along the region over the apple

Language:

Source:

Kibrik (1998:470-1)

Concept:	ContentBearingObject
Definition:	Any SelfConnectedObject that expresses information.

Concept:	ConterminativeCase
Definition:	ConterminativeCase expresses the notion of something moving into the vicinity of the referent of the noun it marks, but not through that region. It has the meaning 'moving into the vicinity of'.

Concept:

ContlativeCase

Definition:

ContlativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location in the vicinity of which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'in the vicinity of'.

Example:

aɪnš -
apple-

lit
SG.SUPERESS

on the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBESS

ʟ́

under the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INESS

inside the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

um -
PL.INTERESS

če -

qɪ

between the apples

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERLAT

t̄ -

iš

onto the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBLAT

L'ak

towards the underneath of the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

l -
SG.ILL

a -

into the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

l -
SG.INTERLAT

qɪak

towards the middle of the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.CONTLAT

rak

in the vicinity of the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERABL

t̄iš

from over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBABL

L'aš

from under the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

l -
SG.INABL

a -

ŝ

from within the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INTERABL

qɪaŝ

from between the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.CONTABL

raš

from near the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERALL

t̄iši

towards over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBALL

L'aši

towards under the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INALL

aši

towards inside the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
PL.INTERALL

um -

če -

qɪaši

towards between the apples

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.CONTALL

rši

towards near the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERTRANS

t̄iXut

along the region over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBTRANS

L'aXut

along the region over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INTRANS

aXut

along the region over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INTERTRANS

qIaXut

along the region over the apple

Language:

Source:

Kibrik (1998:470-1)

Concept:	CoordinatingConnective
Definition:	A coordinating connective is a connective that links constituents without syntactically subordinating one to the other (Crystal 1997:93; Mish et al. 1990:288).

Concept:

DativeCase

Definition:

DativeCase marks 1) indirect objects (for languages in which they are held to exist) or 2) nouns having the role of recipient (as of things given), beneficiary of an action, or possessor of an item (Crystal 1980: 102; Gove, et al. 1966: 577).

Comment:

Here the nominative is zero-marked. Also, in this language nonspecific objects do not take the accusative case.

Example:

Hasan
Hasan- NOM

öküz -
ox-

ü
ACC

aldi
buy- PST.3.SG

Hasan bought the ox

Müdür
director- NOM

Hasan -
Hasan-

a
DAT

mektu -
letter-

u
ACC

göster -
show-

di
PST

The director showed the letter to Hasan

Language:

Turkish

Source:

Blake (2001:87, 119),Comrie (1989:132-6, 175-6),Comrie (1976)

Concept:

Deductive

Definition:

Deductive encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through sound inference procedure. That is, it is the only possible conclusion (Palmer 2001: 6-8).

Comment:

Compare the first example above illustrating the Deductive 'cha'-form to the second example illustrating the Speculative 'sica' form in this language.

Example:

chihoraca
at.that.time

mal -
bad-

cha
SPEC

cado
it

carca
was

fiide
baptismal

del
cerificate

bautismo

At that time the baptismal certificate must have been incomplete (deduced)

yuyanacurca -
they.were.thinking-

sica
DEDUCT

chica
that

cajita
be

huamra
child

I suppose they were thinking he was a child (speculated)

Language:

Inga

Source:

Palmer (2001:27-28),Levinsohn (1975)

Concept:	DelativeCase
Definition:	DelativeCase expresses motion downward from the referent of the noun it marks (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 53; Gove, et al. 1966: 595).

Concept:	DerivationalUnit
Definition:	DerivationalUnit is the class of sublexical units whose members function to derive a new lexical unit from an existing one, by systematically changing the meaning and possibly altering the partOfSpeech feature of the Root or Stem it attaches to (Hartmann and Stork 1972:62; Crystal 1985:89; Mish et al. 1990:342; Bybee 1985:81-82, 99).

Concept:	Determiner
Definition:	A Determiner is a partOfSpeech whose members belong to a class of noun modifiers and express the reference, including quantity, of a noun (Crystal 1997:112; Mish et al. 1990:346).

Concept:

DirectEvidential

Definition:

DirectEvidential, also called sensory, encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression by having direct sensory experience of some situation; this does not include hearing about it from someone else (Palmer 2001: 35-36).

Comment:

Palmer refers to the Direct Evidential as Sensory Evidential and the Indirect Evidential as the 'reported' or 'linguistic evidential'

Example:

ŋindu -
you-

gara
NOM- SENSE

girambiyi
sick- PST

One can see you were sick

ŋindu -
you-

dhan
NOM- LINGEVID

girambiyi
sick- PST

You are said to have been sick

Language:

Source:

Palmer (2001:36),Donaldson (1980)

Concept:	DirectionalCase
Definition:	Represents a dynamic spatial relation (involving movement) between two Objects.

Concept:	Dubitative
Definition:	Dubitative encodes a speakers doubt or uncertainty about a proposition (Palmer 2001).

Concept:	DynamicityAspect
Definition:	DynamicityAspect refers to the degree to which an event is expressed as an on going process, i.e., as progressive or not (Bybee, Perkins and Pagliuca 1994: 127-139).

Concept:

ElativeCase

Definition:

ElativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location out of which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'out of' (Lyons 1968: 299; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 64; Crystal 1985: 106; Gove, et al. 1966: 730).

Example:

karhu -
bear-

na
ESS

at the bear

karhu -
bear-

lla
ADESS

near the bear

karhu -
bear-

sta
ELAT

out of the bear

karhu -
bear-

lta
ABL

from the bear

karhu -
bear-

lle
ALL

towards the bear

Language:

Finnish

Source:

Kiparsky (2001:316)

Concept:	Enclitic
Definition:	An enclitic is a clitic that is phonologically joined at the end of a preceding lexical unit to form a single phonological unit (Crystal 1980:64; Pei and Gaynor 1954:65; Mish et al. 1990:409).

Concept:	Entity
Definition:	The universal class of individuals. This is the root node of the ontology.

Concept:

EquativeCase

Definition:

EquativeCase expresses 'likeness of' or 'identity to' the referent of the noun it marks. It mean: 'as', 'like', and 'in the capacity of'; in some instances, it may have the meaning 'occurs in the manner typical of the referent' (Kibrik 1998: 469).

Example:

te -
they-

jamj
OBL.PL.ERG

L'an
want- NEUTER

nen
we- NOM

za -
REFL.OBL.PL-

qɪdi
EQU

lagum
song- NOM

Xabu -
sing-

s
FIN

They want us to sign in their fashion

Language:

Source:

Kibrik (1998:470)

Concept:

ErgativeCase

Definition:

ErgativeCase in ergative-absolutive languages generally identifies the subject of transitive verbs in the translation equivalents of nominative-accusative Languages such as English (Crystal 1980: 134; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 78; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 67; Andrews and Avery 1985: 138).

Comment:

Example:

w -
M-

as
child- ABS

w -
M-

eikér -
run-

ula
PRES

The boy runs

Language:

Avar

Source:

Blake (2001:121),Ebeling (1966:77)

Concept:

EssiveCase

Definition:

EssiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location at which another referent exists (Lyons 1968: 299,301; Gove, et al. 1966: 778; Crystal 1985: 112; Blake 1994:= 154-5).

Comment:

Lake Miwok has ten case enclitics, illustrated in the examples. In the vocative example, the gram marked as VOC is specific to 'mother'. Other kinship terms have their own special vocative forms.

Example:

kúku -
flea-

n
NOM

A flea is sitting on your forehead

káac -
fish-

u
ACC

He saw the fish

ʔóle
coyote

n
GEN

ṣúluk
skin

coyote skin

ṭumáj -
stick-

tu
INST

I hit him with a stick

réej
king

húukewa -
front-

m
ESS

He's standing in front of the king

réej -
king-

to
ALL

ʔonínnuka

He brought them to the king

má -
that-

m
ABL

The cat came out of there

kaʔáppi -
father-

ni
COMIT

I am walking with my father

ʔunú -
mother-

u
VOC

ʔujée
come.here

Mother, come here!

Language:

Source:

Mithun (1999:204-6),Callaghan (1963)

Concept:	EvaluativeValue
Definition:	EvaluativeValue is the class of values that may be associated with the feature instance 'evaluative'. EvaluativeValue is the class of all evaluative types found in language.

Concept:

Feature

Definition:

Feature, also called a quality or a feature name, is the class of attributes that may be associated with entities. Features have as their values instances of FeatureValue. That is, specific features have specific values associated with them, e.g., the feature 'tense' has 'past', 'present', ..., 'future' as values. In the broader domain, the class of Feature can be thought of as the set of qualities associated with some object in general, e.g., color, size, shape, etc. (Shieber 1986: 12; G=C3=A4rdenfors 2000; Masolo et al. 2002).

Concept:	FeatureConstraint
Definition:	FeatureConstraint is the class of all lists, duples, which contain as the first member a partOfSpeechValue and, as its second, a set of Features. This essentially gives part of speech a priviledged status in a FeatureSystem. That is, the part of speech determines which Features may be associated with a particular linguistic unit.

Concept:	FeatureSpecification
Definition:	A FeatureSpecification is an ordered list, a duple, whose first element must be an instance of Feature and whose second element is either an instance of FeatureValue or FeatureStructure (Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

Concept:

FeatureStructure

Definition:

A FeatureStructure is a set of zero or more FeatureSpecifications. A FeatureStructure is a kind of information structure, a container or data structure, expressly to group qualities or features of some object. In a grammatical feature system, a FeatureStructure holds the grammatical information associated with some linguistic unit. In a typed feature system, a FeatureStructure has an associated type, usually a PartOfSpeechValue. (Shieber 1986; Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

Concept:	FeatureSystem
Definition:	FeatureSystem is the class of grammatical systems which uses features and values to represent grammatical information. It can be assumed that only one feature system exists per language data project. A FeatureSystem consists of a set of FeatureValueAssociations, which is a set of features and their allowable values, and a set of FeatureConstraints (Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

Concept:

FeatureValue

Definition:

FeatureValue is the class of values that may be associated with instances of Feature. That is, specific features have specific feature values associated with them, e.g., the feature 'tense' has 'past', 'present', ..., 'future' as values. In the broader domain, the class of FeatureValue can be thought of as the set of qualia associated with some feature in general, a point in cognitive space. E.g., red is a quale in color space (Shieber 1986: 12; Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001; G=C3=A4rdenfors 2000; Masolo et al. 2002).

Concept:	FeatureValueAssociation
Definition:	FeatureValueAssociation is the class of all lists, duples, which contain as the first member a Feature and as the second a set of FeatureValues.

Concept:

FolkloreEvidential

Definition:

FolkloreEvidential encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through legend, folklore or some other established tradition (Palmer 2001: 40).

Comment:

Palmer refers to the folklore evidential as a general knowledge evidential. The first example, a Folklore Evidential, may be compared to the hearsay evidential in the second example. The hearsay evidential in this language appears to subsume Second and Thirdhand Evidentials. The third example illustrates the Inference Evidential.

Example:

čhéemul -
rain.fell-

ʔma
FOLK

It rained (that's an established fact)

čhéemul -
rain.fell-

ʔdo
HSY

It rained (I was told)

čhéemul -
rain.fell-

ʔka
INFEVID

It rained (everything is wet)

Language:

Pomo, Central

Source:

Palmer (2001:6),Mithun (1999)

Concept:

FreeRoot

Definition:

FreeRoot is the class of free units whose members are common to a set of derived or inflected units, if any, when all bound units are removed. They are not further analyzable into meaningful elements, being morphologically simple. Also, they designate the principle portion of meaning of the unit to which it belongs (Crystal 1985:268; Hartmann and Stork 1972:199; Pei and Gaynor 1954:187-188; Mish et al. 1990:1023; Matthews 1991:64).

Concept:	FreeStem
Definition:	FreeStem is the class of units whose members are decomposable into a root or roots and a derivational unit. They are expressed by the free forms of the language (Crystal 1985:287; Mish et al. 1990:1154).

Concept:	FutureInFutureTense
Definition:	FutureInFutureTense locates the situation in question in the future, relative to a temporal reference point that itself is located in the future relative to the moment of utterance.

Concept:

FutureInPastTense

Definition:

FutureInPastTense locates the situation in question in the future, relative to a contextually determined temporal reference point that itself must be located in the past relative to the moment of utterance.

Comment:

Here the tense of the auxiliary 'to be' locates a a past or future reference point relative to which the main verb occurs. The first example may be understood as Past in Past, or Past Perfect. The second may be understood as Past in Future, or Future Perfect. The third example may be understood as Future in Past. Comrie calls this last 'Conditional'.

Example:

kien
he.was

qatel
he.killed

he had been killing

se jkun
he.will.be

qatel
he.killed

he had been killing

kien
he.was

se joqtol
he.will.kill

he would be killing

Language:

Maltese

Source:

Comrie (1985:77)

Concept:

FuturePerfectTense

Definition:

FuturePerfectTense locates the situation in question before a contextually determined temporal reference point that must be located in the future relative to the moment of utterance (Comrie 1985:69-71).

Comment:

Example:

kien
he.was

qatel
he.killed

he had been killing

se jkun
he.will.be

qatel
he.killed

he had been killing

kien
he.was

se joqtol
he.will.kill

he would be killing

Language:

Maltese

Source:

Comrie (1985:77)

Concept:	Gender
Definition:	A grammatical category used for the analysis of word-classes displaying such contrasts as masculine/feminine/neuter, animate/inanimate, etc. (Crystal 1980: 164-165).

Concept:	GenderValue
Definition:	GenderValue is the class of values that may be associated with the feature instance 'gender'. GenderValue is the class of all gender types found in language.

Concept:

GeneralAbilitive

Definition:

GeneralAbilitive is a very frequently occurring modality which encodes that the agent is able to perform some action. The conditions are external to the agent (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 177; Palmer 2001: 76)

Comment:

The first two Lisu examples may be interpreted as General Abilitive Mood. The third illustrates Mental Abilitive Mood. The fourth illustrates Physical Abilitive Mood.

Example:

ása
Asa

nya
TOP

ami
field

khwa
hoe

tyè -
freedom.taboo-

a̪
DEC

It is not taboo for Asa to hoe fields

ása
Asa

nya
TOP

ami
field

khwa
hoe

bala -
no.hindrance-

a̪
DEC

Asa is free to hoe fields

ása
Asa

nya
TOP

ami
field

khwa
hoe

kwú -
mentally.able-

a̪
DEC

Asa is able (knows how) to hoe fields

ása
Asa

nya
TOP

ami
field

khwa
hoe

kwú -
able-

a̪
DEC

Asa is physically able to hoe fields

Language:

Lisu

Source:

Palmer (2001:77),Hope (1974)

Concept:

GenitiveCase

Definition:

GenitiveCase is used to mark the noun whose referent is the possessor of the referent of another noun (Crystal 1980: 161; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 9495,180; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 82,172; Anderson 1985: 185; Mish et al. 1990: 511; Fleming 1988: 10).

Comment:

Lake Miwok has ten case enclitics, illustrated in the examples. In the vocative example, the gram marked as VOC is specific to 'mother'. Other kinship terms have their own special vocative forms.

Example:

kúku -
flea-

n
NOM

A flea is sitting on your forehead

káac -
fish-

u
ACC

He saw the fish

ʔóle
coyote

n
GEN

ṣúluk
skin

coyote skin

ṭumáj -
stick-

tu
INST

I hit him with a stick

réej
king

húukewa -
front-

m
ESS

He's standing in front of the king

réej -
king-

to
ALL

ʔonínnuka

He brought them to the king

má -
that-

m
ABL

The cat came out of there

kaʔáppi -
father-

ni
COMIT

I am walking with my father

ʔunú -
mother-

u
VOC

ʔujée
come.here

Mother, come here!

Language:

Source:

Mithun (1999:204-6),Callaghan (1963)

Concept:	GrammaticalCase
Definition:	Subsumes the Cases that are assigned by the verb. These Cases often correspond to the SemanticRoles in the Sentence.

Concept:

HabitualAspect

Definition:

HabitualAspect, also called the durative, encodes the situation where an event takes place over an extended period of time. This is, it refers to not just one event but many events of the same type. The occurrence of the events may be protracted indefinitely in time. If the event is a state, then the state is said to hold for some time. If the event is an achievement or an accomplishment, then it may occur again and again. The time interval which is relevant to the habitual is relatively longer than in the case of the iterative (Comrie 1976: 28; Bybee 1985: 142; Payne 1997: 241; Dahl 1999: 32).

Example:

é -
3-

du -
eat-

a
HAB

mɔ́li
rice

He/she eats rice habitually

é -
3-

ga -
ITR-

du
eat

mɔ́li
rice

He/She repeatedly ate rice

Language:

Ewe

Source:

Payne (1997:242)

Concept:	HesternalPastTense
Definition:	HesternalPastTense locates the situation in question somewhere in the span beginning with the period defined culturally as 'yesterday' and extends back through some period that is considered nonremote (Comrie 1985:87-88; Dahl 1985:126).

Concept:

HodiernalFutureTense

Definition:

HodiernalFutureTense locates the situation in question after the moment of utterance within the span culturally defined as 'today' (Comrie 1985: 86; Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 247).

Comment:

The affix kũ- in the first example may be used to mark either Hodiernal Past or Hodiernal Future depending on what aspect markers co-occur with it in the verb. Also, in the examples above, the final vowel of each verb is phonological, hence there is no correspondent for it in the interlinear gloss.

Example:

Kamau
Kamau

a -
2.SG-

kũ -
HODFUT-

nyu -
drink

ũcũrũ
14.porridge

Kamau will drink porridge (within the day)

Kamau
Kamau

a -
2.SG-

rĩĩ -
CLOSEFUT-

nyu -
drink

ũcũrũ
14.porridge

Kamau will drink porridge (within the next few days)

Kamau
Kamau

a -
2.SG-

rĩĩ -
REMFUT-

nyu -
drink

ũcũrũ
14.porridge

Kamau will drink porridge (sometime beyond a few days from now)

Language:

Gikuyu

Source:

Mugane (1997)

Concept:

HodiernalPastTense

Definition:

HodiernalPastTense locates the situation in question before the moment of utterance within the span culturally defined as 'today' (Comrie 1985:87; Dahl 1985:125-126)

Comment:

Bybee, et al divide past tense systems into those that refer to daily cycles and those that do not. Typically, languages with past tenses that refer to a daily cycle will have tense that specifies 'today' and all others will refer to spans of time prior to 'today' (Bybee, et al 1994:99, Dahl 1985:125; Comrie 1985:93). Cocama is such a language. The examples above illustrate its three-way system of remoteness distinctions in the past tense.

Example:

Ritama -
town-

ca
to

tutsu -
go-

tsuri
REMPST

I went to town a long time ago

Ritama -
town-

ca
to

tutsu -
go-

icuá
PREHODPST

I went to town yesterday/a few days ago

Ritama -
town-

ca
to

tuts -
go-

ui
HODPST

I went to town today

Language:

Cocama-cocamilla

Source:

Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca (1994:98-99),Faust (1978)

Concept:

IllativeCase

Definition:

IllativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location into which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'into' (Lyons 1968: 299; Gove, et al. 1966: 1126; Crystal 1985: 152).

Example:

aɪnš -
apple-

lit
SG.SUPERESS

on the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBESS

ʟ́

under the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INESS

inside the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

um -
PL.INTERESS

če -

qɪ

between the apples

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERLAT

t̄ -

iš

onto the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBLAT

L'ak

towards the underneath of the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

l -
SG.ILL

a -

into the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

l -
SG.INTERLAT

qɪak

towards the middle of the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.CONTLAT

rak

in the vicinity of the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERABL

t̄iš

from over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBABL

L'aš

from under the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

l -
SG.INABL

a -

ŝ

from within the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INTERABL

qɪaŝ

from between the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.CONTABL

raš

from near the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERALL

t̄iši

towards over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBALL

L'aši

towards under the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INALL

aši

towards inside the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
PL.INTERALL

um -

če -

qɪaši

towards between the apples

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.CONTALL

rši

towards near the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERTRANS

t̄iXut

along the region over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBTRANS

L'aXut

along the region over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INTRANS

aXut

along the region over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INTERTRANS

qIaXut

along the region over the apple

Language:

Source:

Kibrik (1998:470-1)

Concept:	ImmediatePastTense
Definition:	ImmediatePastTense locates the situation in question at a time considered very recent in relation to the moment of utterance (Comrie 1985: 87).

Concept:

ImperfectiveAspect

Definition:

ImperfectiveAspect encodes the internal temporal structure of an event from within. It indicates that the event is a process without emphasizing its end points, although there may be the entailment that the event has a starting/end point (Comrie 1976: 24; Dahl 1999: 33).

Comment:

The first of the examples illustrates imperfective aspect and may be compared with the second example, which illustrates perfective aspect.

Example:

to
he

tikDe
there

jat
going- IMPERF

hota
was

he was going there (he was on the way)

to
he

tikDe
there

gela
gone- PERFECTIVE

hota
was

he went there

Language:

Marathi

Source:

Bhat (1999:46),Bernsten and Nimbkar (1982)

Concept:

InablativeCase

Definition:

InablativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location from within which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'from within'.

Example:

aɪnš -
apple-

lit
SG.SUPERESS

on the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBESS

ʟ́

under the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INESS

inside the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

um -
PL.INTERESS

če -

qɪ

between the apples

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERLAT

t̄ -

iš

onto the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBLAT

L'ak

towards the underneath of the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

l -
SG.ILL

a -

into the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

l -
SG.INTERLAT

qɪak

towards the middle of the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.CONTLAT

rak

in the vicinity of the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERABL

t̄iš

from over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBABL

L'aš

from under the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

l -
SG.INABL

a -

ŝ

from within the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INTERABL

qɪaŝ

from between the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.CONTABL

raš

from near the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERALL

t̄iši

towards over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBALL

L'aši

towards under the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INALL

aši

towards inside the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
PL.INTERALL

um -

če -

qɪaši

towards between the apples

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.CONTALL

rši

towards near the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERTRANS

t̄iXut

along the region over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBTRANS

L'aXut

along the region over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INTRANS

aXut

along the region over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INTERTRANS

qIaXut

along the region over the apple

Language:

Source:

Kibrik (1998:470-1)

Concept:

InallativeCase

Definition:

InallativeCase expresses that something is moving toward the region that is inside the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'towards in(side)'.

Example:

aɪnš -
apple-

lit
SG.SUPERESS

on the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBESS

ʟ́

under the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INESS

inside the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

um -
PL.INTERESS

če -

qɪ

between the apples

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERLAT

t̄ -

iš

onto the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBLAT

L'ak

towards the underneath of the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

l -
SG.ILL

a -

into the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

l -
SG.INTERLAT

qɪak

towards the middle of the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.CONTLAT

rak

in the vicinity of the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERABL

t̄iš

from over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBABL

L'aš

from under the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

l -
SG.INABL

a -

ŝ

from within the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INTERABL

qɪaŝ

from between the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.CONTABL

raš

from near the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERALL

t̄iši

towards over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBALL

L'aši

towards under the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INALL

aši

towards inside the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
PL.INTERALL

um -

če -

qɪaši

towards between the apples

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.CONTALL

rši

towards near the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUPERTRANS

t̄iXut

along the region over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.SUBTRANS

L'aXut

along the region over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INTRANS

aXut

along the region over the apple

aɪnš -
apple-

li -
SG.INTERTRANS

qIaXut

along the region over the apple

Language:

Source:

Kibrik (1998:470-1)

Concept:

InceptiveAspect

Definition:

InceptiveAspect, also called the ingressive, encodes the beginning portion of some event (Bybee 1985: 147, 149; Payne 1997: 240).

Comment:

The first example , with inceptive aspect, may be compared with the second example, which lacks inceptive aspect. In these examples, the inceptive is formed via affixation

Example:

wetgawə -
speak-

ŋŋo -
INCEPT-

k
INF

to begin speaking

wetgaw -
speak-

ək
INF

to speak

Language:

Chukot

Source:

Muravyova (1998:537)

Concept:

Indicative

Definition:

Indicative

Comment:

The first example above, illustrating Indicative mood, may be compared with the second, which illustrates Subjunctive mood. Here, the subjunctive is used to express doubt about a proposition.

Example:

Creo
believe- 1.SG

que
that

aprende
learn- 3.SG.PRES.INDIC

I believe that he is learning

Dudo
doubt- 1.SG

que
that

aprende
learn- 3.SG.PRES.INDIC

I doubt that he is learning

Language:

Spanish

Source:

Palmer (2001:5),Klein (1975)

Concept:

IndirectEvidential

Definition:

IndirectEvidential, also called reported, encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression from a source other than by experiencing the situation directly (Palmer 2001: 40).

Comment:

Palmer refers to the Direct Evidential as Sensory Evidential and the Indirect Evidential as the 'reported' or 'linguistic evidential'

Example:

ŋindu -
you-

gara
NOM- SENSE

girambiyi
sick- PST

One can see you were sick

ŋindu -
you-

dhan
NOM- LINGEVID

girambiyi
sick- PST

You are said to have been sick

Language: